Innate Immune System Components

Innate Immune System Components There are individual systems of the immune system, innate immunity which we are born with and it is non-specific. It is genetically based and passed on to our offspring and adaptive immunity in which we acquire through humoral and cell mediated immunity. Innate and adaptive immune systems are distinct systems but act together at numerous levels to develop a complete defense against invading pathogens. Both systems have mechanisms for distinguishing self from non-self, therefore, under normal situations they are not directed against the hosts tissues and cells. Innate Immunity Elements of the innate immune system (figure 1.8) have been known for many years. However, in the past few years there has been a greater focus on innate immunity and its role in protection against infection and tissue injury and its role in tolerance to self-antigens. Innate immunity defines a collection of protective mechanisms the host uses to prevent or minimize infection. The innate immune system operates in the absence of the specific adaptive immune system but is tied to adaptive immunity in many ways. The innate immune system is characterized by a rapid response to an invading pathogen or foreign or effete cells. In addition to the rapid response, it is also non-specific and usually of a short duration. Innate immunity lacks immunological memory and there is no clonal expansion of lymphocytes as seen in the adaptive immune response. The innate immune response is also important in directing the specific, long-lived adaptive immune response. The host defense mechanisms associated with innate immunity consist of a number of physical barriers (intact skin) and secretions accompanied by a number of serum factors such as complement, certain cytokines, and natural immunoglobulins. The cellular components of innate immunity include a number of cell types, many of which are found at potential points of entry of pathogens. Examples of these cells include natural killer (NK) cells, (figure 1.2), polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs), macrophages (figure 1.3), and dendritic cells (DCs), (figure 1.2). The intact skin and mucosal tissues provide considerable protection against invading infectious agents. However, once the agents pass through the skin a number of important events take place. This includes activation of the complement cascade that triggers the development of a number of substances to attract phagocytes to the area. A number of antimicrobial peptides are produced at epithelial cell surfaces. These antimicrobial peptides play an important role in local defense mechanisms, disrupt bacterial cell membranes, and probably play a role in preventing skin infections. Antimicrobial Peptides (figure 1.4) Human ÃŽÂ ²-defensins are produced by epithelial cells in the mucous membranes of the airways and intestinal tract. Defensins are small cationic peptides that have broad antimicrobial activities against a number of microbial agents including Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi, and enveloped viruses. Defensins are non-glycosylated peptides containing approximately 35 amino acid residues, and ÃŽÂ ²-defensins have six cysteine residues that provide a distinct structure. Stimulation of the epithelium by certain cytokines can induce defensin production. The exact mode of action of defensins antimicrobial activity is unknown. There are three defensin subfamilies: ÃŽÂ ±-defensins, ÃŽÂ ²-defensins, and ÃŽÂ ¸-defensins The Complement System The complement system (figure 1.5) is another important component of innate immunity. The system consists of 30 proteins found in serum or on the surface of certain cells. Activation of the complement system results in a cascade of biochemical reactions that ultimately ends in lysis and disruption of foreign or effete cells. Without activation, the components of the complement system exist as pro-enzymes in body fluids. As a by-product of the activation of the cascade, a number of biologically reactive complement fragments are generated. The complement fragments can modulate other parts of the immune system by binding directly to T lymphocytes and bone marrow-derived lymphocytes (B lymphocytes) of the adaptive immune system and also stimulate the synthesis and release of cytokines. Natural Antibodies Natural antibodies have been recognized for some time but recently they were described as a component of the innate immune system. Natural antibody is defined as an antibody that is found in normal, healthy individuals who have no evidence of exogenous antigenic stimulation. Natural antibodies are believed to develop in a highly regulated manner; they are usually found in low titer in serum and are low-affinity antibodies. A high percentage of the natural antibodies found in serum are of the IgM class. These antibodies are produced by a primitive B lymphocyte, called the B-1 lymphocytes. B-1 cells are usually CD5+ and considered to be long-lived and self-replicating. Natural antibodies play an important role as a first line of defense against pathogens and other types of cells, including precancerous, cancerous, cell debris, and some self-antigens. Toll-Like Receptors (TLR) TLRs (figure 1.6) are found on phagocytic cells, including mononuclear phagocytes, circulating monocytes, tissue macrophages, and endothelial cells, and are important components of the innate immune system. TLRs make up a family of cell surface protein receptors present on several cell types that function to recognize certain conserved molecular components of microorganisms and signal that microbes have breached the bodys barrier defences. TLRs serve as first responders in a mammalian host to recognize the presence of an invading pathogen. They also generate an inflammatory response to attempt to remove the invading agent. Phagocytosis (figure 1.7) Polymorphonuclear neutrophilic leukocytes have been well-known components of the innate immune system for many years. Detailed studies of PMN phagocytosis and intracellular killing of microorganisms have led to a better understanding of important defense mechanisms against invasion by pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and enveloped viruses. PMNs are attracted to the site of microbial invasion, recognize the microbe, become activated, kill the microorganisms, resolve the infection, undergo apoptosis, and are then ingested and removed by either macrophages or neighbouring endothelial cells to resolve the inflammatory response. PMNs arise as myeloid progenitors in the bone marrow. Specific growth factors and cytokines mediate the differentiation of myeloid precursors into mature PMNs. After entering the circulation, the PMNs have a half-life of about 8-12 h before undergoing a programmed cell death (apoptosis) and are reabsorbed through endothelial walls. The PMN turnover is about 1011 cells per day. Cytokines and Chemokines Cytokines and chemokines are small, secreted polypeptides that regulate essentially all functions of the immune system. Cytokines participate in determining the nature of the immune response by regulating or controlling cell growth, differentiation, activation, immune cell trafficking, and the location of immune cells within the lymphoid organs. Cytokines are a group of intercellular messengers that contribute to inflammatory responses through activation of the hosts immune cells. Cytokines are host-derived products that enhance the recruitment of circulating leukocytes as a response to the presence of pathogens. Cytokines also play important roles in leukocyte attraction by inducing the production of chemokines, which are known to be potent mediators of chemo-attractant activity for inflammatory cells. Chemokines and cytokines provide a complex network of signals that can either activate or suppress inflammatory responses Natural Killer Cells Initially, NK cells were referred to as non-specific lymphocytes because NK cells could kill certain virally infected and malignant cells without known prior sensitization. NK cells were known to resemble large lymphocytes morphologically and were referred to as large granular lymphocytes. Approximately, 10-15% of the lymphocytes circulating in peripheral blood are NK cells. NK cells are distinct from T- and B lymphocytes because they express neither immunoglobulin receptors nor T-cell antigen receptors. There are other distinctions including phenotype and function. NK cells have receptors that recognize major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I antigens. Because NK cells have cytotoxic properties, their function is highly regulated in their interactions in both the innate and adaptive immune systems. NK cells play important roles in innate immune responses and immune regulation. They communicate with other cells through a complex of both activation and inhibitory signals through cell surface receptors. Dendritic Cells The DCs develop in the bone marrow from hematopoietic pluripotential stem cells. Precursor DCs are constantly generated in the bone marrow and are released into the peripheral blood. After leaving the bone marrow, the precursor DCs home to a number of different tissues where they reside as sentinels waiting to interact with antigen. The precursor DCs express low-density MHC class II antigens and after encountering a proper stimulus differentiate into highly endocytic and phagocytic iDCs. Precursor DCs circulate in the environment and on contacting a pathogen produce cytokines, that is, ÃŽÂ ³-interferon, and undergo maturation to iDCs. The iDCs increased phagocytic and endocytic capabilities that lead to binding antigen by the iDCs and then maturation to mature DCs. Adaptive Immunity In contrast to innate immunity, adaptive immunity (figure 1.8) is flexible, specific, and has immunological memory, that is, it can respond more rapidly and vigorously on a second exposure to an antigen. Immunologic memory provides a more powerful response to a repeated exposure to the same foreign substance or antigen. Adaptive immunity is more complex because it provides the ability to respond very specifically. Innate and adaptive immunity responses interact effectively to enhance the bodys defense mechanisms against foreign or damaged host cells. Inherent in both innate and adaptive immune responses are the mechanisms to distinguish self from non-self. The primary blood cell elements of the adaptive immune system are T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. These T- and B-cells provide the unique specificity for their target antigens by virtue of the antigen-specific receptors expressed on their surfaces. The B- and T-lymphocyte antigen-specific receptors develop by somatic rearrangement of germline gene elements to form the TCR genes and the immunoglobulin receptor genes. This recombination mechanism provides unique antigen receptors capable of recognizing almost any antigen encountered, and provides the specific immunological memory for a rapid, vigorous, and specific response to a later exposure to the same antigen. It is estimated that millions of different antigen receptors may be formed from a collection of a few hundred germline-encoded gene elements. For many years, innate and adaptive immune responses were studied as separate systems because of their different mechanisms of action. However, it is now understood that synergy between the two systems is required to provide adequate immune reactivity against invading pathogens. Innate immune responses, through their barrier and relatively broad types of actions, represent the first line of defense against pathogens. At the time the innate system is getting activated, the adaptive system becomes activated also. The adaptive response becomes evident a few days later because it requires time for sufficient antigen-specific receptors to be generated through clonal expansion/proliferation. There are multiple interactions occurring between the two systems, which results in the co-amplification of each respective response and leads to the ultimate destruction and elimination of the invading pathogen. B lymphocytes The primary function of B lymphocytes is the production of antibodies that are specific for a given antigenic component of an invading pathogen. Antibodies are encoded by the heavy (H)- and light (L)-chain immunoglobulin genes. Antibodies may be secreted or cell surface-bound on B lymphocytes. There are five classes of immunoglobulins: IgM, IgG, IgA, IgD, and IgE; and the classification is based on the isotypes of the H chain. B lymphocytes represent roughly 10-15% of the peripheral blood lymphocyte population and free immunoglobulins make up a considerable proportion of serum proteins. After an encounter with a specific pathogen and an antibody response is generated, the level of specific antibodies to that antigen decreases in serum over a relatively short period of time. However, immunological memory persists in the B-cell population, which is capable of rapid clonal expansion upon re-exposure to that same antigen. T lymphocytes Whereas B lymphocyte products recognize extracellular pathogens, T lymphocytes are adept at identifying and destroying cells that have been infected by intracellular pathogens. For T cells to recognize antigenic peptides, the peptide must be presented in the context of cell surface MHC class I or class II proteins. In other words, T cells can only recognize molecular complexes consisting of the antigenic peptide and a self-structure, that is, the MHC. Depending on whether the antigenic peptide has been synthesized within the host cell or ingested by the cell and modified by proteolytic digestion, either MHC class I or class II proteins are required. Proteins of the MHC are intimately tied to T-lymphocyte responses and recognition of antigenic peptides. The MHC class I proteins consist of three HLA classes: HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-C with hundreds of allelic variants of each. Structural studies have shown that class I molecules exist as cell surface heterodimers with a polytransmembrane ÃŽÂ ±-chain associated (noncovalently) with a nonpolymorphic ÃŽÂ ²2 microglobulin protein. The protein chains are folded in such a way as to form a physical groove capable of binding up to an 11 amino acid long peptide. Antigenic proteins are degraded by proteolytic enzymes to about this size for binding to th e MHC class I proteins for antigenic presentation. Antigenic peptides are bound in the groove of the HLA molecule and expressed to the cell surface for presentation to initiate a T-cell response. Humoral Immunity (figure 1.9) The human immunoglobulins are a family of proteins that confer humoral immunity and perform vital roles in promoting cellular immunity. Five distinct classes or isotypes of immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE) have been identified in human serum on the basis of their structural, biological, and antigenic differences.1-4 IgG and IgA have been further subdivided into subclasses IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4 or subclasses IgA1 and IgA2 on the basis of unique antigenic determinants. Multiple allotypic determinants in the constant region domains of human IgG and IgA molecules as well as kappa (ÃŽÂ º) light chains indicate inherited genetic markers. Finally, there are several immunoglobulin-associated polypeptides such as secretory component (SC) and J chain that have no structural homology with the immunoglobulins, but serve important functions in immunoglobulin polymerization and transport across membranes into a variety of secretions (e.g., saliva, sweat, nasal secretions, breast milk, and colostrum). This diversity of the immunoglobulin components of the humoral immune system provides a complex network of protective and surveillance functions. Human IgA Polymeric secretory IgA (figure 1.10) is composed of two four-chain basic units and one molecule each of SC and J chain (approximately 400,000 MW). It is the predominant immunoglobulin in colostrum, saliva, tears, bronchial secretions, nasal mucosa, prostatic fluid, vaginal secretions, and mucous secretions of the small intestine. In contrast, 10% of the circulating serum IgA is polymeric, whereas 90% is monomeric (160,000MW). Together, they constitute approximately 15% of the total serum immunoglobulins. Trimers and higher polymeric forms can exist, but in small amounts. Two subclasses of IgA have been identified (IgA1 and IgA2), which differ by 22 of the 365 amino acids. In terms of complement activation, IgA poorly activates the classical pathway. This process has been hypothesized as a host mechanism for attenuating inflammatory responses induced by IgG antibodies at the mucosal surface. In contrast, IgA reportedly activates the alternative pathway of complement to provide some direct protective functions. IgA, once bound to a bacterial or parasitic surface antigen, may bind CD89 (IgA receptor) on infl ammatory cells (monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, and eosinophils), leading to their destruction by means of antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC). Moreover, its binding to viral or microbial surface antigens may restrict the mobility of microorganisms and prevent their binding to mucosal epithelium. Finally, secretory IgA can play an important first line of defense in antigen clearance by binding to antigens that leak across an epithelium and transporting them back across to prevent their entry. To summarize,  IgAs unique structure resists proteolysis and it functions to block uptake of antigen, bacterial o r viral attachment, limit inflammation induced by classical pathway complement activation, and promote microbial destruction through ADCC by binding to leukocyte receptors. Human IgD IgD (figure 1.11) is a four-chain monomer of approximately 180,000 MW with a long hinge region that increases its susceptibility for proteolytic cleavage. Although IgD is normally present in serum in trace amounts (0.2% of total serum immunoglobulin), it predominantly serves as a membrane-bound antigen receptor on the surface of human B lymphocytes. Despite suggestions that IgD may be involved in B-cell differentiation, its principal function is as yet unknown. As such, IgD is rarely quantified in a general workup of an individual suspected of a humoral immune deficiency or a B-cell dyscrasia. Hyperimmunoglobulinemia D with serum IgD levels >100 U/mL, however, has been noted in conjunction with periodic fever syndrome. This condition is a rare, autosomal recessive disorder that is characterized by recurrent episodes of fever accompanied by abdominal distress, lymphadenopathy, joint involvement, and skin lesions. It appears to be particularly responsive to anti-tumor necrosis factor ( TNF) treatment. Mutations that lead to this disease occur in the mevalonate kinase gene, which encodes an enzyme involved in cholesterol and nonsterol-isoprenoid biosynthesis. Human IgE IgE (190,000 MW) was identified in 1967 as a unique immunoglobulin that circulates in serum as a four-chain monomer. Although IgE constitutes only 0.004% of the total serum immunoglobulins, it possesses a clinically significant biological function by binding through its Fc region to the alpha chain on high-affinity receptors (FcÃŽÂ µR1) on mast cells and basophils. On subsequent exposure to relevant protein allergens from trees, grasses, weeds, pet dander, molds, foods, or insect venoms, IgE antibodies on mast cells become cross-linked. This process triggers the production and release of vasoactive mediators (e.g., histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes) that can induce mild to severe immediate type I hypersensitivity reactions in sensitized  atopic individuals. Human IgG In healthy adults, the four polypeptide chain IgG monomer (150,000 MW) constitutes approximately 75% of the total serum immunoglobulins. IgG is approximately equally distributed between intra- and extravascular serum pools. Moreover, IgG possesses the unique ability to cross the placenta, which provides protection for the fetus and newborn. Human IgG has been subdivided into four subclasses on the basis of unique antigenic determinants. IgG1, IgG2, and IgG4 possess an MW of approximately 150,000, whereas IgG3 is heavier (160,000 MW) as a result of an extended 62-amino acid hinge region that contains 11 interchain disulfide bonds. IgG3s highly rigid hinge region promotes accessibility of proteolytic enzymes to sensitive Fc cleavage sites, which results in an increased fractional catabolic rate and a shorter biological half-life (7-8 days) than has been observed for IgG1, IgG2, and IgG4 (21-24 days). In terms of complement activation, IgG1 and IgG3 are the most effective, whereas IgG4 due to its compact structure does not readily activate the classical pathway of complement. IgG4 antibodies are also unique in that they appear to be functionally monovalent due to in vivo exchange of IgG4 half-molecules. As such, thi s is believed to lead to the formation of small IgG4 immune complexes that have a low potential for inducing immune inflammation. Moreover, IgG4 antibodies have the ability to interfere with immune inflammation caused by the interaction of complement-fixing IgG subclasses with antigen. Researchers in the field of allergy have speculated that IgG4 antibodies also scavenge antigen that prevents mast cell-bound IgE antibody from being cross-linked by antigen, and thus blocking IgE-mediated hypersensitivity reactions in atopic individuals who have undergone immunotherapy. Other important structural and biological differences among the human IgG subclasses relate to their Fc receptor binding, and the different binding sites on the constant region domains for rheumatoid factors, complement components, and bacterial proteins (protein A and protein G). Human IgM IgM (figure 1.12) is a pentameric immunoglobulin of approximately 900,000 MW that is composed of a J chain and five IgM monomers. Pentameric IgM constitutes approximately 10% of serum immunoglobulins in healthy individuals. Along with IgD, monomeric IgM is also a major immunoglobulin that is expressed on the surface of B cells where it serves as an antigen receptor. The C-terminal portion of pentameric secreted IgM differs from that of its monomeric cell-bound form. Secreted IgM has a mu chain with a 20-amino acid hydrophilic tail and a penultimate cysteine that facilitates polymerization. Cell membrane-bound IgM has a 41-amino acid membrane tail that contains a hydrophobic 26-amino acid segment that anchors the IgM molecule in the B-cell membrane lipid bilayer. IgM antibodies are clinically important because they predominate as an antigen receptor in early immune responses to most antigens. With a functional valency of 10, IgM antibodies are highly efficient in activating the classi cal complement pathway. IgMs actual functional valency, however, is only 5 due to steric hindrance among its many antigen-binding sites. Cell Mediated Immunity Cell Mediated Immune response (CMIR) (figure 1.9) is the functional effectors pf the immune response for phagocytosis, cell killing by cytotoxic T cells, NK and K cells Macrophage Activation While the production of antibody through the humoral immune response can effectively lead to the elimination of a variety of pathogens, bacteria that have evolved to invade and multiply within phagocytic cells of the immune response pose a different threat. Cell Mediated Cytotoxicity Cell Mediated Cytotoxic immune response is implicated in refusal of foreign grafts and the exclusion of tumors and virus-infected cells. The cells involved in these methods are cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, NK-cells and K-cells. NK cells Also known as the large granular lymphocytes are normally non-specific, MHC-unrestricted cells involved mainly in the elimination of neoplastic or tumor cells.   Once the target cell is recognized, killing occurs. K cells K-cells contain immunoglobulin Fc receptors. They are involved in Antibody-dependent Cell-mediated Cytotoxicity (ADCC). ADCC occurs as a result of an antibody being bound to a target cell surface via specific antigenic determinants expressed by the target cell. Once bound, the Fc portion of the immunoglobulin can be recognized by the K-cell. This type of CMIR can also result in  Type II hypersensitivities.

Engage in personal development in health Essay

1.1 My Duties and responsibilities as a senior support worker include: following policies and procedures, attending regular meetings in order to progress and in the interest of the service users within the Gofal services, personal care, recording temperatures, administering medication, promoting independence for service users and ensuring a healthy lifestyle, ensuring all domestic duties are complete, delegating tasks, key working tasks, mentoring new members of staff and competing all paperwork daily. 1.2 As a senior support worker I always expect and ensure my work is completed to a very high standard, ensuring all current legislation is complied with via C.S.S.I.W and care standards. I should always be accountable by making sure I can answer for my actions. Promote and uphold the privacy, dignity, rights, health and wellbeing of people who use health and care services and their carers at all times. Work in collaboration with my colleagues to ensure the delivery of high quality, safe and compassionate healthcare, care and support. Communicate in an open, and effective way to promote the health, safety and wellbeing of people who use health and care services and their carers. Respect a person’s right to confidentiality. Strive to improve the quality of healthcare, care and support through continuing professional development. Uphold and promote equality, diversity and inclusion. As a Support Worker, I make a valuable and important contribution to the delivery of high quality healthcare, care and support. Following the guidance set out in this Code of Conduct will give me the reassurance that you are providing safe and compassionate care of a high standard, and the confidence to challenge others who are not. This Code will also tell the public and people who use health and care services exactly what they should expect from me as a support worker. 2.1. The importance of reflective practice in continuously improving the quality of service provided is vital as it identifies weaknesses that can then be turned into strengths that will enable staff members to put action plans and guidelines into place to avoid any errors that may occur. This  also enables us to make sure that high standards are met without any errors. Even our service users or us as staff may change and things such as personal care, support or medication may also need to be re-evaluated. It is especially of importance to staff that may have been in the industry for some time as new staff members may be able to visualise things that you may have become too rigid or set about. 2.3. Own values, belief systems and experiences may affect working practice due to relationship breakdowns or personal problems at home this may have a significant affect on peoples general day to day mood and personality. This without a doubt will have a detrimental affect on the service users we are supporting. This is why you need to keep your personal life and working life separate. Working for a Muslim orientated company we have to respect the Wishes of our services so therefore Halal meat plays a major role within our services. Our meat must be Halal and no pork is to be consumed on the premises. Our service users are able to eat what they want outside of Gofal and whilst out on day services. Working a 24/7 rota can sometimes have an impact on those who have religious beliefs for example. Muslims attend mosque on a Friday where as Christians attend church on a Sunday and it is not always possible to accommodate everyone’s needs as the service users come first and the staff ratio always needs to correct in order to support to a high standard. 4.1. At Gofal we have regular supervision and team meetings where we can discuss anything of importance to us as support workers. If we are having any problems with staff members or service users then this gets discussed. As a result further training may be offered or different technique methods may be offered as well as reading the files again to go over any details that may have been missed or to refresh if you haven’t worked with a certain service user for a long time. In regards to progression I always aim to complete relevant courses and complete qualifications in order to further my career. If I complete my work to a high standard then at Gofal you will get recognised for your achievement and possibly work towards a higher grade. 5.1. Learning activities have affected practice as it builds confidence and experience in knowing what you are dealing with it may be in the form of an observation. Initially when I started Gofal I completed two shadowing shifts and this allowed me to observe different staff members approaches and how it may differentiate between maybe a male member of staff and a female member of staff. Depending on the service user we are supporting it may be a case of someone with a religious belief that may work well and build an excellent rapport with the service user. For example we have a female Muslim member of staff who works excellent with a Muslim service user where as he may not work as well with myself. Appraisals and supervisions play a major role as they reflect on areas of improvement as you may have concerns regarding your support or the support that you are giving the service users. For example the ratio of females/males, age, religious beliefs, drivers and medication trained.

Massive Software: A Film Innovation

It has been noted that crowds are an important feature in everyday living. Collectively, people assemble together in order to observe, protest, or celebrate various happening.Since the 19th century, crowds have become one of the most important objects of scientific inquiry, as realistically speaking, they share a collective behavior within the environment where a certain event is taking place (Magnenat-Thalmann, 2001).Nonetheless, crowd formation has been an imperative factor in the film industry. It plays a significant role in providing realistic approach for building large scenes that require numerous people in order to carry out the objective of stimulating the emotions of the audiences to make them feel as if such events are actually taking place.Back then, in order to carry out large-scale production scenes such as battle sequences and stadium spectators, myriads of extras are commissioned. One of the many disadvantages of such commissioning is apparent in the amount of time and finances it consumes.Realistically, two or three days of the scheduled production are wasted just to move the extras around the locations. At times, given directions are not followed by the extras most especially in terms of behaviors and reactions required in the set.These are just some of the key issues faced by most of production teams. However, with the advent of a technology called â€Å"Multiple Agent Simulation System in Virtual Environment† or â€Å"Massive Software,† as it is popularly referred to, enhanced creativity as well as faster and efficient production can now be achieved.Massive software is the fruition of the five years work of software developer and crowd specialist Stephen Regelous. The said technology is identified as a high-end computer simulation and visualization system that serves as the solution for generating massive yet realistic crowds, capable of performing reactions and behaviors. Instead of developing animated characters that are neede d to be manipulated all throughout, Massive creates autonomous agents, which can be people, animals, or even non-human characters.The use of fuzzy logic by Massive enables the agents to respond to their environment, and their reactions can simulate emotive qualities ranging from bravery to fear. As each agent is designed in accordance to arranged set up, massive agents are more unique and less robotic compared to other animated characters. In addition to this, Massive’s dynamic features also include smart stunts and cloth simulation which add up to the realistic environment created by Massive itself (Massive Software, 2009).First used in the feature film â€Å"Lord of the Rings† trilogy, Massive is considered as an invaluable technology that helped in shaping the epic battle in the said movie. Compared to traditional movie casting, the Lord of the Rings trilogy managed to deviate away from the customary commissioning of hundreds of actors in order to give life to some of the most intense sequences in the story through the use of Massive (Bares, 2005).Additionally, Massive is not only a crowd tool but also a tool for choreography, allowing directors to have a qualitative edge on their films. On an actual shoot, directors continuously give instructions to actors together with the extras. With the vast number of people, the scene would not eventually work as is.However, such is not the case with Massive. Through the said software, directors can move the camera as needed and at the same time put the agents with sophisticated behavior without necessarily repeating the scenes all over again (Bares, 2005).Currently, Massive is being used in many productions, may it be feature films or commercials, due to its capability to produce photo-real crowd and intense cinematic quality scenes that were never possible before (Bares, 2005).Massive is also being introduced to non-entertainment markets, specifically in fields that require strong visual effects such a s engineering and architecture, as it is perceived as a transformative technology that could impact buildings and public space design, pedestrian planning, disaster prevention and recovery, consumer behavior research, environmental impacts, and other life sciences (Thomson Reuters, 2009).In general, the introduction of Massive Software in the film industry is a premiere solution to the issue of crowd-related visual effects in both film and television. The said innovative technology marks a great change in the entertainment history as a whole because it deviates from the traditional commissioning of extras which are usually unmanageable and costly. Similarly, not only is Massive a solution to crowd effects, but it is also perceived as a useful tool in various fields, as it helps to produce a much more efficient and flexible outputs.   

Children’s Author Declines Amazon-Backed Award

British author of children’s books, Allan Ahlberg, has declined the inaugural Booktrust Best Books Lifetime Achievement Award on a pretext that it is sponsored by Amazon. He states that his dislike of Amazon is based on ‘ethical grounds’: because of numerous reports of Amazon’s tax evasion in the UK Ahlberg says that he cannot allow himself to be associated with this company. In recent years Amazon has been subject to heavy criticism due to the fact that it uses a loophole in the UK tax legislation, paying low corporation tax instead of high sales tax and stating that it sells goods from its headquarters located in Luxembourg. Allan Ahlberg is an author of more than 140 children’s books, most of which he wrote in collaboration with his wife, Janet Ahlberg, until she died of cancer in 1994 (he wrote stories and she illustrated them). He also wrote numerous books working with other illustrators. In his letter explaining this decision Ahlberg states that ‘tax, fairly applied to us all, is a good thing’, because it pays for libraries, hospitals and suchlike. Using legal loopholes to avoid paying it is, according to him, a disgrace, and he believes that Booktrust made a mistake by associating themselves with a company like Amazon. And Ahlberg himself feels that for him to receive a â€Å"lifetime achievement† award sponsored by Amazon would have been completely unacceptable. The reward is not merely symbolical – together with it Ahlberg turned down  £5,000 prize money. Booktrust’s CEO, Viv Bird, replied that she was sorry to learn about Ahlberg’s refusal, but it is the author’s personal decision and she doesn’t want to criticize his judgement. On the subject of Amazon she can only say that their organization works with a wide range of partners, and Amazon is and will be an important sponsor for them – the help from this company allows them to promote the best children’s books, encourage children to read and, in general, celebrate good fiction and its authors. She also added that thousands of children participated in voting for their favorite books for the Best Book Awards, and this year three hundred of them took part in the event itself, getting an opportunity to meet people who created all these wondrous fictional worlds for them. It is not the first time the Booktrust prize sponsor becomes the subject of controversy. For example, in 2003 a number of authors, including Gillian Cross and Melvin Burgess, published a letter stating that they don’t want to be associated with a prize sponsored by Nestle, thus protesting against the company’s selling their infants’ formula in third world countries. Ironically, in spite of his stand against Amazon â€Å"on moral grounds† and refusing to take a prize from the company’s metaphorical hands, Allan Ahlberg doesn’t seem to mind selling his books through its online store and making use of its enormous client base. So perhaps rejecting prize money won’t be too much of a loss for him.